In Modern Persian, different forms of the verb “ goftan” (meaning “ to say” ) are used as grammatical tools for denoting modality. Some of these forms such as “ gu” , “ gu’ i” , “ gofti” , “ gu’ iyâ ” and “ guyâ ” went through historical changes and were used as modal adverbs in Persian literary texts and among them, “ gu’ i” and “ guyâ ” are still common. In Modern Persian, there are other forms of the verb “ goftan” such as “ begu” , “ nagu” and “ begu’ i” , which function as modals in certain contexts. In this paper, we studied the semantic features of the verb “ goftan” in texts belonging to different stages of Persian language from Old Persian to Modern Persian and we also tracked the process of grammaticalization of certain forms of the verb “ goftan” to show how they changed into modal adverbs. Based on our findings, “ gu’ i” has been used for purposes such as simile and allegory to represent imaginary and unreal statements and “ guyâ ” has had a modal role to represent doubt and uncertainty of the speaker. Both forms are still in use. Moreover, some forms of the verb “ goftan” are in the middle stages of grammaticalization. These forms represent the modalities of inference, conjecture, assumption, and imagination, but some of them are gradually losing their verbal characteristics and are changing into adverbs to represent modality.

The benefits of textual input enhancement in the acquisition of linguistic forms have produced mixed results in SLA literature. The present study investigates the effects of textual enhancement on adult foreign language intake of two English linguistic forms-subjunctive mood and inversion structures-to explore the role of the type of linguistic items in input enhancement studies. It also investigates learners’ trend of development in the acquisition process of these structures. Thirty first year college-level participants were exposed to twelve enhanced texts for subjunctive mood and twelve other texts for inversion structures. The study employed a pretest-posttest-delayed posttest design to explore the effectiveness of instructional treatment in the short term and long term acquisition of the structures. Alongside a pretest and a posttest, three production tests were administered to assess the trend of development in each structure. The results revealed that textual enhancement aided the learning of the target forms. With regard to type of linguistic items, significant benefits of subjunctive mood over inversion structures were found during both short term and long term. This study revealed that textual input enhancement may have differential effects on the acquisition of linguistic forms. Theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical implications are also discussed.

Rostam city is one of the cities of Fars province. With the exception of two villages in this city, the dialect of the rest of the people of the city, is Lori. The number of villages studied is 59 ones. The research method was a combination of field and descriptive methods and linguistic materials were collected by guided collection method. The questionnaire of this research is based on the national project of Atlas language, which includes 105 words and phrases and 36 sentences. Data were transliterated after the interview using the International Phonetic Alphabet. Some words of this dialect are completely different from standard Persian, some have only a different pronunciation and some are completely the same. There are five types of syllables in this dialect, which are: cv, cvc, cvcc, ccv, ccvc. Also, in this dialect, vowel extension causes semantic differentiation in some cases. The order of adjectives, and nouns is the same as in Persian, except the ones in some cases, [e] are omitted. The plural sign in this dialect is [-æ, l], added to the end of the nouns. The definite article is /-æ, ku / and /-ku / added to the end of the definite nouns.

Within the text of Nahj al-Balagha, one may come across words and phrases that can be classified as profane or offensive statements. These terms serve two purposes. Some of them denote profanity and obscenity, while others seem to be using profanity. However, it possesses a metaphorical connotation and does not include any profanity. Understanding the historical origins of these statements, as well as their textual and temporal context, is essential and highly beneficial for comprehending the intended meaning of Imam Ali (peace be upon him). This study employed a prescriptive methodology to extract fourteen collective curses from Nahj al-Balagha and analyze the translation performance of five translators in relation to this work. The translators are Faiz al-Islam, al-Shahidi, al-Faqihi, al-Dashti, and al-Ansari. Each of these translators embodies a distinct translation style. The research findings revealed that many statements that may appear to be curses were not employed as insults but rather served various purposes such as praise, adoration, attention, and punishment. These translators neglected this difficulty and attempted to translate these meanings either word-for-word or with an imprecise functional equivalent, resulting in an incorrect translation of these meanings. Of the various translation methods available, the faithful approach and the literal method offer greater potential for translating this specific category of fixed language structures.Keywords: Translation, Fixed Form of Language, Cursing, Nahj al-Balagha.IntroductionGiven the intimate connection between translation and culture, the primary obstacle for the translator will be to convey these ideas accurately in the target language. Multiple hypotheses have been put out in the process of converting these concepts into different languages. Newmark (2011) has put forward a total of eighteen approaches, while Ivier (1987) has suggested a total of seven methods. Gradler (2000) and Harvey (2000) both postulated four distinct procedures. Additionally, Chesterman (1997) and Pedersen (2007) have put up alternative approaches. The primary distinction in the categorization of methodologies in these types of studies lies in the specific focus that each method places on the primary unit of language in translation (Alizadeh, 2019: 54). Profane expressions are seen as established linguistic and cultural phenomena that vary across different cultures. Consequently, translators often opt for literal translations, disregarding cultural nuances, resulting in inaccurate translations. To ensure a dependable scientific outcome, we chose five translations of Fayz al-Islam, al-Shahidi, al-Faqihi, al-Dashti, and al-Ansari from a pool of several translations of Nahj al-Balagha. We next examined how well these translations rendered eight collective cursing expressions. The primary objective of the ongoing research is to determine whether the cursing idioms found in Nahj al-Balagha exclusively convey the act of cursing or if alternative interpretations may be attributed to them based on the context and circumstances.Can a Persian-compatible cultural counterpart be provided for these allegedly cursed phrases? If the answer is yes, then which translator achieved greater success?Which translation method offered the most optimal approach for translating profanities?Literature Review The majority of research conducted in the realm of translating cultural components focuses on English translation. The research conducted in the domain of Arabic is exceedingly restricted. The majority of the works conducted in this domain, with the exception of a small number, pertain to the genre of novels and stories. This article introduces and critiques the following research studies relating to the subject:The study titled "A Study of the Content and Structure of Cursing Expressions in Nahj al-Balagha" was authored by Mir Ahmadi and his colleagues and published in the Journal of Studies in Nahj al-Balagha in 2017. Through an analysis of the rhetoric, style, and structure of cursing words in Nahj al-Balagha, the researchers aimed to examine the concept of politeness in Nahj al-Balagha from various perspectives. Their objective was to demonstrate that the Imam (peace be upon him) adhered to the teachings of the Holy Qur'an even when using cursing, maintaining a sense of politeness, and refraining from using vulgar language. The research approach employed in this study diverges significantly from the current essay, which seeks to critique the translation of profane terms in Nahj al-Balagha.The paper titled "A Study of the Expressions of Cursing and Cursing of Imam Ali (peace be upon him) in Nahj al-Balagha" was authored by Akbar Tawhid Law and published in the Journal of Modern Studies in Nahj al-Balagha in 2016. This essay focuses on elucidating the semantic and conceptual distinctions between the idioms of cursing found in the Qur'an and Nahj al-Balagha.The subject of the current research is novel and groundbreaking in comparison to earlier studies, and no research has been conducted using this approach thus far.Research MethodologyThis research used a prescriptive methodology. In this approach, after examining each sample, the researcher provides explicit instructions or recommendations that outline a particular approach for conducting translation tasks (refer to Manafi Anari, 2015: 13). The chosen samples are additionally evaluated and examined using the techniques suggested in the Newmark model.ConclusionThe results gained from researching five Persian translations of Nahj al-Balagha's sermons and messages for expressing collective cursing expressions are as follows:Translators have encountered comparable difficulties while translating profane terms, which include: A) Restricting their analysis to the surface meaning of certain curses and disregarding their purpose in early Islam. B) The inaccuracy lies in the verb's structure in translation, as it is employed to convey meaning based on a different structure. C) Failing to embrace a singular approach. When encountering comparable circumstances, the process of translating a term takes place.2: Upon evaluating the translators' performance, we observed deficiencies and inadequacies in their ability to accurately comprehend and convey meaning in this domain. The translators, as a whole, did not execute their tasks correctly and did not adhere to the established scientific principles of translation studies. Consequently, it is not possible to favor the performance of one translator over another.Some of the profanities found in Nahj al-Balagha serve purposes beyond mere cursing. They are employed in various contexts to express admiration, astonishment, caution, and other intentions.Hence, translators must diligently consider the many connotations of these terms and render them in accordance with the specific context in which they are employed. It is advisable for them not to solely depend on the Nahj al-Balagha dictionary and its explanations. Instead, students should explore these terms in poetry, ancient prose, collections of proverbs, and other sayings to get insight into their various applications and the intended meaning by the Imam.

A B S T R A C T Considering the location of vital centers in the heart of the cities, they are more affected by unexpected events. Hence, due to the probability of the loss of existing services and devastating effects on the social organization and the necessity to prepare essential needs of people and military agencies, planning and building the storage for essential items as a replacement for the damaged services are considered a critical factor in social and defensive reliability. This research tries to locate stockpile of essential Items in Mashhad by emphasizing passive defense criteria and analyzing stockpiles of essential items in terms of form communicational structure. The type of research is applied, and the research method is in theoretical discussion and formulation of mental models, descriptive-analytical and information-gathering methods, documents, questionnaires, and interviews. Moreover, the information analysis method is with the IHWP model in GIS software in the locating section. In the section on examining architectural patterns and forms is content analysis. The research results show that 20.61 percent of Mashhad has an optimal location potential, and 0.94 percent of city also has a favorable potential for location. Also, parts of the north-east and south of the city have the priority for location. The types of spatial organization of the rectangular form, including centralized, four-armed, introverted, and diagonal, were investigated in the architecture department. The centralized form is preferable to other forms for its capacity and access to exits and spatial organization Extended Abstract Introduction As a stockpile of essential items to facilitate the process of activities and to achieve goals, the warehouse plays a vital role in creating this flexibility in organizations. In fact, from the point of view of crisis management, the stockpile of essential items can play a significant role in the supply chain to deal with unforeseen internal or external incidents. Passive defense in the stockpile of essential items refers to measures that do not require expensive and challenging methods and solutions to protect the stockpile of essential items. Furthermore, it can help avoid the substantial expenses of monitoring the entire inventory and increasing non-conformities (such as theft, fire, non-conformity in the inventory and management inspection, fatal accidents, etc.) or reduce this amount. Choosing the form of the stockpile of essential items for essential items with a passive defense approach requires a comprehensive analysis based on defense principles such as hierarchical protection, nationwide coverage, dynamic protection, relative self-sufficiency, and minimum vulnerability. Therefore, in addition to placing this category of stockpile of essential items in Mashhad, the mentioned research also tries to establish a relationship between architectural forms and principles of defense to reduce vulnerability and improve the level of relief in times of crisis.   Methodology The current type of research is applied, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. In this research, 29 people were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews with urban and passive defense experts. The method of data analysis is quantitative and qualitative. Also, the content analysis method was used to compile and analyze the architectural forms of the stockpile of essential items of essential items compatible with the principles of passive defense. The fuzzy quantitative model IHWP was exploited in GIS software for placing the stockpile of essential items in the studied sample.   Results and discussion Locating From the overlaying of 10 indicators, distance from the fault, height of buildings, distance from gas lines, distance from high voltage power lines, road width, building density, risk of uses, distance from water transmission lines, population density, and land prone to liquefaction, location in 10 class was conducted that the first and second priority is the north-east and south of Mashhad, which has the most favorable location. In Mashhad, 17.2% of the city area has a very low score, 12.8% low score, 48.37% medium score, 20.61% high score, and 0.94% very high score regarding location desirability.   Architecture According to the previous studies on geometric forms, the suitable form for warehouse design is a simple form that does not have frequent breaks and sharp and vague points to reduce the spatial deviation. Among the geometrical shapes, square and rectangular right-cornered shapes meet the criteria of warehouse design. In the meantime, the rectangle can define joints along its length, each of which is a focal point for concentrating activities and organizing their performance. Additionally, the internal spaces in this form are reasonably defined, which results in the building's overall form being overshadowed. This also makes the surrounding accesses more targeted and focused, ultimately providing more suitable relief during times of crisis. In order to create four types of stockpiles of essential items, A (centralized), B (four arms), C (introverted), and D (polar) were designed, and the way of combining these stockpiles of essential items was expressed and analyzed separately. The research results on accesses and circulation shows that type A covers a population of over 100,000 people, which has the best performance in terms of access to exits and spatial organization and provides services in times of crisis. Therefore, type A, due to the sequence of layers, lines, and expansion on the surface, has the most functional symmetry with the body of the warehouse, and its spatial projection is limited to adapt the shell to the body. Visually, it has the least visibility from a high height. Due to its volume and formal indicators, it has a high level of homogeneity and camouflage with its surrounding environment.   Conclusion The results of placing stockpiles of essential items in Mashhad showed that the northeast and south of the city have a higher talent for establishment. According to the examination of geometric forms, the rectangular form has the most efficiency for warehouse design in the architecture area. Due to formal capabilities such as the value of lines, angles, and proportions, it has the most efficiency in terms of performance, motion circulation, and the least spatial deviation. In order to research as mentioned above, after choosing the dominant form of the rectangle, an attempt has been made to analyze the spatial organization of the rectangular form using linear, combined, decomposition, and combination methods and centripetal and radial arrangements in terms of passive defense principles. Furthermore, four different types of warehouse design were formally analyzed as patterns and representative types, which are four arms, centralized, introverted, and diagonal, each of which, in addition to functional capabilities, also covers the population's needs in crisis conditions. Finally, the concentrated type due to the extent of its successive lines and layers in close proximity to each other, the perceptibility of the surfaces of the body joints because it can be recognized from a high altitude in order not to be identified in times of crisis such as air raid, they have the highest degree of compatibility between function and form from the point of view of passive defense.   Funding There is no funding support.   Authors’ Contribution All of the authors approved the content of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work.     Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest.   Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific

Despite the critical relationships among pragmatic action, context, and linguistic vs. non-linguistic resources for producing various adjacency pairs in foreign or second language (L2) exchanges, their interplay has not been adequately investigated. Therefore, the present study examined these relations in the production of request-refusal adjacency pairs. The needed data were collected from 108 upper-intermediate to advanced EFL learners. Three hundred conversations were audio-recorded from learners’ roleplays that involved making request-refusal adjacency pairs. MAXQDA software was used for data transcription, codification, and analysis. Data analysis revealed that request-refusal adjacency pairs were co-constructed in discursive contexts through multiple turns using both linguistic and nonlinguistic turn construction units (TCUs). Learners significantly used more linguistic rather than nonlinguistic TCUs and more sentential and clausal TCUs than phrasal and lexical TCUs. Moreover, the use of pauses and continuers was significantly more than laughter, facial expression, and body language. These findings have some pedagogical implications for teachers to raise learners’ awareness of context, action, and linguistic and nonlinguistic TCUs in the production of speech act adjacency pairs.

Linguistic communication is done in a mutual situation in which at least two people exchange their ideas. Speaking of the producer and its comprehension by the receiver (interlocutor) depend on many factors, such as: language knowledge, communicative etiquettes and the culture. By an educational purpose, the article wants to study how the linguistic communication in a foreign language course is. This Synoptic study provides the reader with advantages and disadvantages of some activities in the class and also gives some suggestions for oral speech furtherance of young Iranian students.

In the twentieth century, a variety of relativistic views have emerged in different fields. Anthropological and linguistic studies of some scientists such as Cyper and Whorf led to linguistic relativism. According to this view, not only languages have decisive roles in the formation of our thoughts and worldviews, but they are incommensurable and they cannot be translated to one another. In this paper, I seek to analyze relativism and its determinants in order to illustrate, first, that at what level, linguistic relativism enters, and what things are the ones that languages become their reference framework and relativity, and second, how strong and creidable this sort of relativism is-to see whether or not evidence and arguments for this view can drive home its claim. In this paper, I shall distinguish between linguistic relativism and linguistic determinism, showing that the weak thesis of linguistic determinism and the partial role of language in the facilitation of thought-and not in its determination and control-can be plausible.

One of the most important. aspects of drama and definitely drama translation is that it should be performable. In order to preserve the perform ability, the communicative function of linguistic forms should be recognized and conveyed by the translator.As noticed by some translation scholars (e.g. Snell-Hornby [1988] and Hatim [1998]), speech acts have a vital role in this process. Translators may employ different strategies to overcome difficulties in translating speech acts.Knowledge of difficulties of drama translation, speech acts (especially their different linguistic forms in different languages) and the different strategies of translating speech acts can help translators fulfill their duty as communicators.Studying speech acts as linguistic tools which can contribute to the production of better translations and recognition of the strategies adopted by translators in treating speech acts may pave the way for further researches on this neglected genre and may contribute to producing more adequate translations. This research, which was based on parallel and a comparable corpora, intended to present a classification of the linguistic forms representing the most Frequently-used speech acts in Persian dramas by analyzing randomly-selected pages of authentic Persian.